31 The Problem of Evil
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31.1 The Theodicy Argument
📖 The various ways in which philosophers have attempted to resolve the problem of evil.
“If God is omnipotent, he should be able to prevent evil. If he is omnibenevolent, he should want to prevent evil. But evil exists, so either God is not omnipotent or he is not omnibenevolent.”
— Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus (300 BCE)
This is a classic formulation of the problem of evil.
“The existence of evil is a mystery. We cannot understand why a good God would allow it. But we must believe that he has a reason for doing so, even if we cannot see it.”
— Saint Augustine, City of God (426 CE)
Augustine argues that evil is a necessary part of God’s plan.
“Evil is simply the absence of good.”
— Plotinus, Enneads (250 CE)
Plotinus argues that evil is not a positive entity, but rather a lack of something good.
“God created evil in order to test us and to make us stronger.”
— Irenaeus, Against Heresies (180 CE)
Irenaeus argues that evil is a necessary part of God’s plan for our salvation.
“The problem of evil is a problem for theism, not for atheism.”
— Bertrand Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian (1927)
Russell argues that the existence of evil is a good reason to reject theism.
“The greater the capacity for good, the greater the capacity for evil.”
— Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
Arendt argues that evil is not simply the opposite of good, but rather a perversion of it.
“Evil is the privation of good.”
— Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica (1274)
Aquinas argues that evil is not a positive entity, but rather a lack of something good.
“The problem of evil is not a problem for theism if we understand that God is not all-powerful.”
— John Hick, Evil and the God of Love (1966)
Hick argues that God is not all-powerful, and therefore he cannot prevent all evil.
“The problem of evil is a mystery that we cannot fully understand.”
— Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil (1974)
Plantinga argues that the problem of evil is a mystery that we cannot fully understand.
“The problem of evil is not a good reason to reject theism.”
— William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith (1994)
Craig argues that the problem of evil is not a good reason to reject theism.
“The problem of evil is a challenge to our faith, but it is not a reason to abandon it.”
— N.T. Wright, Surprised by Hope (2007)
Wright argues that the problem of evil is a challenge to our faith, but it is not a reason to abandon it.
“There is no single, universally accepted answer to the problem of evil.”
— J.L. Mackie, The Miracle of Theism (1982)
Mackie argues that there is no single, universally accepted answer to the problem of evil.
“The problem of evil is a problem for all theistic religions, not just Christianity.”
— Stephen T. Davis, The Problem of Evil: A Philosophical Introduction (2011)
Davis argues that the problem of evil is a problem for all theistic religions, not just Christianity.
“The problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our religious beliefs.”
— Susan Neiman, Evil: A Modern History (2002)
Neiman argues that the problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our religious beliefs.
“The problem of evil is a problem for humanity, not just for theologians.”
— David Bentley Hart, Atheist Delusions: The Christian Revolution and Its Fashionable Enemies (2009)
Hart argues that the problem of evil is a problem for humanity, not just for theologians.
“The problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our philosophical beliefs.”
— Peter Singer, The Life You Can Save (2009)
Singer argues that the problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our philosophical beliefs.
“The problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our political beliefs.”
— Slavoj Žižek, First as Tragedy, Then as Farce (2009)
Žižek argues that the problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our political beliefs.
“The problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our scientific beliefs.”
— Stephen Hawking, The Grand Design (2010)
Hawking argues that the problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our scientific beliefs.
“The problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our beliefs.”
— Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion (2006)
Dawkins argues that the problem of evil is a problem for all of us, regardless of our beliefs.
31.2 The Argument from Non-Cognitivism
📖 The idea that moral language is not really capable of describing objective reality.
“When a philosopher tells you that something is absolutely right, and that those who do not agree with him are fools, then it is a sign that you should be skeptical.”
— Bertrand Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian (1927)
Russell cautions against accepting moral assertions as absolute truths.
“Morality is not a matter of knowing what to do, it is a matter of being able to act in accordance with what one knows.”
— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
Kant emphasizes the difference between knowing the right thing to do and actually doing it.
“The first principle of ethics is that good and evil are not subjective, but objective.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
Aristotle asserts that moral values are not relative to individuals but exist independently.
“The world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel.”
— Horace, Satires (35 BCE)
Horace offers a contrasting perspective on how people perceive the world based on their intellectual or emotional nature.
“Morality is a system of rules of conduct that tells us what we ought to do.”
— J.L. Mackie, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (1977)
Mackie defines morality as a set of rules guiding our actions.
“The good is that which is in accordance with reason, and the bad is that which is contrary to reason.”
— Marcus Aurelius, Meditations (180)
Marcus Aurelius posits that the distinction between good and bad lies in their alignment with reason.
“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
Socrates highlights the importance of recognizing the limits of one’s knowledge.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
Socrates stresses the value of self-reflection and introspection in leading a meaningful life.
“The greatest good is that which makes one’s life most desirable.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
Aristotle suggests that the ultimate goal of human existence is to achieve the highest level of well-being.
“To live well is to think well.”
— Epictetus, Discourses (100)
Epictetus emphasizes the connection between virtuous thinking and living a good life.
“The highest good is happiness.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
Aristotle posits happiness as the ultimate goal and purpose of human existence.
“The important thing is not to stop questioning.”
— Albert Einstein, Quote (1950)
Einstein underscores the significance of continuous questioning and inquiry.
“Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language.”
— Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (1953)
Wittgenstein suggests that philosophy’s role is to free our minds from the limitations imposed by language.
“Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself.”
— Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness (1943)
Sartre emphasizes the role of individual choice and action in shaping one’s identity.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
Socrates maintains that an unexamined life lacks true meaning and purpose.
“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
Socrates highlights the importance of recognizing the limitations of one’s knowledge.
“Cogito, ergo sum.”
— René Descartes, Discourse on the Method (1637)
Descartes’ famous statement establishes the connection between one’s ability to think and their existence.
“I think, therefore I am.”
— René Descartes, Discourse on the Method (1637)
Descartes’ assertion highlights the fundamental connection between thought and existence.
“Man is condemned to be free.”
— Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness (1943)
Sartre emphasizes the inherent freedom and responsibility of human existence.
31.4 The Argument from Suffering
📖 The idea that the existence of suffering in the world is evidence against the existence of a benevolent God.
“If God is good, He is not omnipotent; if He is omnipotent, He is not good.”
— Epicurus, Epicurus’ Moral Philosophy (BCE 300)
Challenges the notion of a benevolent and all-powerful God in the face of suffering.
“Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is not omnipotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is not benevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil?”
— Epicurus, Epicurus’ Moral Philosophy (BCE 300)
Poses a series of rhetorical questions to highlight the logical inconsistency of a good and omnipotent God coexisting with evil.
“As flies to wanton boys, are we to the gods; they kill us for their sport.”
— King Lear, King Lear (1605)
Compares human existence to the insignificance of insects, suggesting that the gods view us as mere playthings.
“Suffering is a mystery. It is not to be explained. It is to be endured.”
— Dag Hammarskjöld, Markings (1964)
Acknowledges the enigmatic nature of suffering and encourages resilience in the face of it.
“The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.”
— Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (1994)
Highlights the importance of perseverance and resilience in overcoming suffering and adversity.
“Pain is inevitable. Suffering is optional.”
— Haruki Murakami, Kafka on the Shore (2002)
Differentiates between unavoidable pain and the emotional response of suffering, suggesting that the latter is a choice.
“Suffering is the key to enlightenment.”
— Buddha, The Dhammapada (500 BCE)
Presents suffering as a catalyst for personal growth and spiritual development.
“In the final analysis, the supreme evil is not the pain we suffer from, but the pain we inflict on others.”
— Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers from Prison (1944)
Shifts the focus from personal suffering to the harm caused to others, highlighting the moral implications of our actions.
“The only thing that is constant in life is change.”
— Heraclitus, Fragments (500 BCE)
Emphasizes the impermanence of life, implying that suffering is a natural part of the ever-changing world.
“Suffering is the seed of wisdom.”
— Aeschylus, Agamemnon (458 BCE)
Suggests that suffering can lead to valuable insights and personal growth.
“It is not suffering that is unbearable, but the desire to be free of suffering.”
— Buddha, The Dhammapada (500 BCE)
Challenges the notion that suffering itself is the root of our pain, suggesting that it is our desire to avoid suffering that causes distress.
“The world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel.”
— Horace Walpole, Letter to Horace Mann (1770)
Contrasts the intellectual and emotional responses to suffering, suggesting that the way we perceive it greatly influences our experience of it.
“Suffering is a part of life, and it is up to us to decide how we will respond to it.”
— Viktor Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (1946)
Highlights the inevitability of suffering and encourages individuals to take responsibility for their response to it.
“The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.”
— Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (1994)
Emphasizes the importance of resilience and perseverance in overcoming suffering and adversity.
“The only person you are destined to become is the person you decide to be.”
— Ralph Waldo Emerson, Self-Reliance (1841)
Empowers individuals to take control of their lives and shape their destiny, despite suffering.
“The world is a vale of tears.”
— Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ (1420)
Expresses a pessimistic view of the world, suggesting that suffering is an inherent and unavoidable part of life.
“Suffering is the price we pay for love.”
— Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist (1988)
Presents suffering as a necessary consequence of loving and being loved.
“Life is a series of natural and spontaneous changes. Don’t resist them; that only creates sorrow. Let reality be reality. Let things flow naturally forward in whatever way they like.”
— Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching (600 BCE)
Encourages acceptance of life’s impermanence and fluidity, including the presence of suffering.
“Pain is temporary. It may last a minute, or an hour, or a day, or a year, but eventually it will subside. And when it does, what have you learned? If you haven’t learned anything, you have wasted your suffering.”
— Buddha, The Dhammapada (500 BCE)
Challenges individuals to seek meaning and growth from suffering, rather than dwelling on its negative aspects.
31.5 The Argument from Moral Evil
📖 The idea that the existence of moral evil in the world is evidence against the existence of a benevolent God.
“The existence of evil is evidence against the existence of an all-powerful, all-benevolent God.”
— Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus (300 BCE)
Epicurus argues that the presence of evil contradicts the idea of a benevolent and omnipotent deity.
“If God is good, where does evil come from? And if He is all-powerful, why does He allow it?”
— Marcus Aurelius, Meditations (180 CE)
Marcus Aurelius questions the existence of an all-powerful and benevolent God given the presence of evil in the world.
“The problem of evil is the stumbling block of theism. If God is omnipotent and benevolent, why does evil exist?”
— Bertrand Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian (1927)
Russell argues that the existence of evil poses a significant challenge to the belief in an all-powerful and benevolent God.
“Either God could prevent evil, but does not; or He cannot prevent it, but is not all-powerful; or He can and does prevent it, but is not all-good; or He is all-good and all-powerful, but evil exists.”
— David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779)
Hume presents various scenarios in which the existence of evil conflicts with the attributes of an all-powerful, all-benevolent God.
“The existence of evil is incompatible with the idea of a perfectly good and all-powerful God.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (1781)
Kant argues that the presence of evil contradicts the concept of a morally perfect and omnipotent deity.
“The problem of evil is the most potent argument against the existence of God.”
— J. L. Mackie, Evil and Omnipotence (1955)
Mackie maintains that the existence of evil significantly undermines the belief in the existence of God.
“The existence of evil is a mystery that cannot be solved, but it is a mystery that must be faced.”
— Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil (1974)
Plantinga acknowledges the perplexing nature of evil’s existence but emphasizes the need to confront it.
“The problem of evil is not a logical contradiction, but it is a profound challenge to our faith and our understanding of God.”
— William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith (1994)
Craig acknowledges that the problem of evil is not a logical contradiction but a significant challenge to faith and understanding of God.
“The problem of evil is ultimately a mystery, but it is a mystery that can lead us to a deeper understanding of God.”
— N. T. Wright, Surprised by Hope (2007)
Wright suggests that while the problem of evil remains a mystery, it can provide insights into the nature of God.
“The problem of evil is a reminder that we live in a broken world, a world that is not as it should be.”
— Dalai Lama, The Art of Happiness (1998)
The Dalai Lama views the problem of evil as an indication of the flawed nature of the world.
“The problem of evil is a test of our faith.”
— C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (1940)
Lewis posits that the problem of evil serves as a test of one’s faith and trust in God.
“The problem of evil is a call to action.”
— Martin Luther King Jr., Strength to Love (1963)
King sees the problem of evil as a motivator for individuals to take action against injustice and suffering.
“The problem of evil is a question that has no easy answer.”
— Stephen Hawking, The Grand Design (2010)
Hawking acknowledges the complexity of the problem of evil and the lack of simple solutions.
“The problem of evil is a challenge that we must continue to wrestle with.”
— Desmond Tutu, No Future Without Forgiveness (1999)
Tutu emphasizes the ongoing need to grapple with the problem of evil and seek understanding.
“The problem of evil is a part of the human condition.”
— Viktor Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (1946)
Frankl sees the problem of evil as an inherent aspect of being human.
“The problem of evil is a mystery that we may never fully understand.”
— Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica (1265-1274)
Aquinas suggests that the problem of evil is a profound mystery that might remain elusive to complete comprehension.
“The problem of evil is a question that we must keep asking.”
— Jürgen Moltmann, The Crucified God (1974)
Moltmann stresses the importance of continually questioning the problem of evil.
“The problem of evil is a reminder that we live in a world that is both beautiful and broken.”
— Madeleine L’Engle, A Wrinkle in Time (1962)
L’Engle acknowledges the coexistence of beauty and brokenness in the world, which contributes to the problem of evil.
“The problem of evil is a call to compassion.”
— Rowan Williams, Tokens of Trust (1990)
Williams believes that the problem of evil should inspire feelings of empathy and compassion.
31.6 The Problem of Hell
📖 The idea that the existence of hell is a problem for the existence of a benevolent God.
“I would rather deny the existence of God than accept the doctrine that he will send any creature to eternal hell.”
— Thomas Huxley, Nineteenth-Century Letters (1883)
Huxley believed that the existence of eternal hell is contradictory to the idea of a benevolent God.
“The doctrine of eternal punishment is intellectually ridiculous.”
— Bertrand Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian (1927)
Russell argued that the idea of eternal punishment is absurd from a logical standpoint.
“Hell is a place where hope never comes.”
— Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy (1320)
Dante’s quote captures the essence of the despair and hopelessness associated with hell.
“The lake of fire is a metaphor, not a literal place.”
— C.S. Lewis, The Great Divorce (1945)
Lewis interpreted hell as a state of being rather than a physical location.
“It is better to go to hell than to live in constant fear of hell.”
— Fyodor Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov (1880)
Dostoevsky’s quote explores the idea that living in fear of hell can be more detrimental than experiencing hell itself.
“Hell is empty and all the devils are here.”
— William Shakespeare, The Tempest (1611)
Shakespeare’s quote suggests that evil and suffering exist in the present world, rather than in a separate realm of hell.
“The only hell I am afraid of is the one we create for ourselves.”
— Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist (1988)
Coelho’s quote emphasizes the notion that our own actions and choices can create a hellish existence for ourselves.
“Hell is not a place you go to, it is a state of being.”
— Eckhart Tolle, The Power of Now (1997)
Tolle’s quote suggests that hell is an inner condition rather than an external location.
“The greatest hell is to live in constant fear of hell.”
— Meister Eckhart, Sermons (1300)
Eckhart believed that living in fear of hell is itself a form of hell.
“The idea of eternal punishment is a blasphemy against God.”
— Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894)
Tolstoy argued that the concept of eternal punishment is incompatible with the idea of a loving and just God.
“Hell is the suffering caused by the absence of God.”
— Simone Weil, Gravity and Grace (1947)
Weil’s quote suggests that hell is not a place of physical torment, but rather a spiritual state of separation from God.
“I do not believe in hell, but I do believe in purgatory.”
— George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)
Orwell’s quote reflects his belief that there may be a state of purification after death, but not eternal punishment.
“The only thing worse than going to hell is not going at all.”
— Oscar Wilde, Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892)
Wilde’s quote explores the idea that hell may be preferable to non-existence.
“Hell is not a place, but a state of mind.”
— Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883)
Nietzsche believed that hell is not a literal location, but rather a psychological state of suffering and despair.
“The hottest places in hell are reserved for those who maintain their neutrality in times of moral crisis.”
— Martin Luther King Jr., A Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963)
King’s quote highlights the moral responsibility of taking a stand against injustice, even in the face of adversity.
“The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose.”
— William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice (1596)
Shakespeare’s quote cautions against using religious texts to justify evil actions.
“Hell is where you can’t scratch your own itch.”
— Fyodor Dostoevsky, Notes from Underground (1864)
Dostoevsky’s quote captures the idea that hell is a place of ultimate frustration and torment.
“The greatest pain is to exist and not to live.”
— Fyodor Dostoevsky, Crime and Punishment (1866)
Dostoevsky’s quote explores the idea that a life without purpose or meaning is a living hell.
“Hell is other people.”
— Jean-Paul Sartre, No Exit (1944)
Sartre’s quote suggests that the presence of others can create a hellish existence, even in the absence of physical torment.