19 Ethics
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19.1 Virtue Ethics
📖 A theory that focuses on the development of virtuous character traits, rather than following moral rules or consequences.
“Virtue is the only true good, and vice the only true evil.”
— Socrates, Plato’s Euthydemus (400 BCE)
Socrates believed that virtue is the highest objective in life and that it is the only thing that can bring lasting happiness.
“The greatest good is to live in harmony with nature.”
— Marcus Aurelius, Meditations (170 CE)
Marcus Aurelius believed that living in accordance with nature is the best way to live a virtuous life.
“If you want to be a good person, first be a good neighbor.”
— Confucius, The Analects (500 BCE)
Confucius believed that the first step to being a good person is to be a good neighbor, which means being kind and helpful to others.
“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
— Socrates, Plato’s Apology (399 BCE)
Socrates believed that the only way to attain true wisdom is to recognize one’s own ignorance.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Plato’s Apology (399 BCE)
Socrates believed that a life that is not examined, or reflected upon, is not worth living.
“Virtue is the only thing that makes life worth living.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
Aristotle believed that virtue is the highest good and that it is the only thing that can make life worth living.
“The greatest wealth is to live content with little.”
— Seneca, Letters from a Stoic (64 CE)
Seneca believed that the greatest wealth is not material wealth, but rather the inner contentment that comes from living a virtuous life.
“The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot be seen or even touched - they must be felt with the heart.”
— Helen Keller, The Story of My Life (1903)
Helen Keller believed that the best and most beautiful things in the world are not material things, but rather the intangible things that we can only experience with our hearts.
“It is not the man who has too little, but the man who craves more, that is poor.”
— Seneca, Letters from a Stoic (64 CE)
Seneca believed that poverty is not a lack of material wealth, but rather a lack of contentment.
“The greatest good is to do good.”
— Epictetus, The Enchiridion (100 CE)
Epictetus believed that the greatest good is to do good, which means acting in accordance with virtue.
“A good man is hard to find.”
— Proverbs 20:6, The Bible (Unknown)
The Bible teaches that it is difficult to find a truly good person.
“The world is a dangerous place, not because of those who do evil, but because of those who look on and do nothing.”
— Albert Einstein, Speech at the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (1933)
Einstein believed that the world is a dangerous place not because of evil people, but because of good people who fail to act.
“The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing.”
— Edmund Burke, Speech to the Electors of Bristol (1774)
Burke believed that evil will triumph if good people do not take action to stop it.
“Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.”
— Martin Luther King, Jr., Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963)
King believed that injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere, and that all people are interconnected.
“The time is always right to do what is right.”
— Martin Luther King, Jr., Speech at the Lincoln Memorial (1963)
King believed that there is never a wrong time to do the right thing.
“I have decided to stick with love. Hate is too great a burden to bear.”
— Martin Luther King, Jr., Speech at the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1957)
King believed that love is a more powerful force than hate, and that it is the only way to overcome hate.
“The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.”
— Nelson Mandela, Speech at the Rivonia Trial (1964)
Mandela believed that the true measure of a person’s character is not whether they never fall, but whether they always get back up.
“It is not our differences that divide us. It is our inability to recognize, accept, and celebrate those differences.”
— Audre Lorde, The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House (1984)
Lorde believed that it is not our differences that divide us, but our inability to accept and celebrate those differences.
19.2 Deontological Ethics
📖 A theory that emphasizes the importance of following moral rules or principles, regardless of the consequences of one’s actions.
“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
True wisdom comes from recognizing the limits of one’s knowledge.
“To do is to be.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
Our actions define who we are.
“The greatest wealth is to live content with little.”
— Plato, The Republic (380 BCE)
True wealth lies in contentment and simplicity.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
A life without self-reflection and introspection is meaningless.
“No man is happy who does not think himself happy.”
— Seneca, Letters from a Stoic (64 CE)
Happiness is a state of mind that is independent of external circumstances.
“The mark of an educated mind is the ability to entertain a thought without accepting it.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
Critical thinking involves considering different perspectives without necessarily agreeing with them.
“Virtue is the highest good.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
Moral excellence is the ultimate goal of human existence.
“The only true evil is injustice.”
— Plato, The Republic (380 BCE)
Injustice is the root of all social and moral problems.
“The greatest good is to do good to others.”
— Epictetus, The Enchiridion (100 CE)
Our highest purpose is to help and benefit others.
“Happiness is the chief good and the goal of life.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
The ultimate aim of human existence is to achieve happiness.
“It is not the man who has too little, but the man who craves more, that is poor.”
— Seneca, Letters from a Stoic (64 CE)
Greed and欲望 are the root causes of poverty.
“The greatest wealth is to live content with little.”
— Plato, The Republic (380 BCE)
True wealth lies in contentment and simplicity.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
A life without self-reflection and introspection is meaningless.
“Courage is not simply one of the virtues, but the form of every virtue at the testing point.”
— C.S. Lewis, The Screwtape Letters (1942)
Courage is the ultimate test of all other virtues.
“The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.”
— Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (1994)
Resilience and perseverance are the keys to success.
“The only true measure of a man is not what he has accomplished, but what he would do if he knew he could not fail.”
— Robert H. Schuller, Tough Times Never Last, But Tough People Do! (1983)
Our true potential is revealed when we are free from the fear of failure.
“The greatest wealth is to live content with little.”
— Plato, The Republic (380 BCE)
True wealth lies in contentment and simplicity.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
A life without self-reflection and introspection is meaningless.
“The only true measure of a man is not what he has accomplished, but what he would do if he knew he could not fail.”
— Robert H. Schuller, Tough Times Never Last, But Tough People Do! (1983)
Our true potential is revealed when we are free from the fear of failure.
19.3 Consequentialist Ethics
📖 A theory that evaluates the morality of an action based on its consequences, rather than on the intentions of the actor or the rules that are followed.
“The good life is to desire and to achieve what is good.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (BCE 350)
The purpose of life is to pursue and obtain what is morally good.
“Nature prompts all beings to actions in their own interest.”
— Cicero, De Finibus (BCE 45)
All creatures naturally act in their own best interests.
“The end justifies the means.”
— Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince (1532)
The morality of an action is determined solely by its consequences, regardless of the means used to achieve them.
“The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
The moral value of an action is determined by how much happiness it produces for the greatest number of people.
“Each person is born with a natural right to as much liberty as is possible, without infringing on the liberty of others.”
— John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859)
People have a fundamental right to freedom, as long as they don’t harm others in exercising it.
“The only morality that is rationally defensible is that which is based on the consequences of actions.”
— G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica (1903)
Moral judgments should be based solely on the consequences of actions, not on subjective feelings or intuition.
“The rightness or wrongness of an action is not determined by its consequences, but by the intentions of the actor.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
The morality of an action is determined by the intention of the person performing it, not by the consequences of the action.
“The only thing that really matters is that you live your life in a way that makes you happy, and that you don’t hurt other people in the process.”
— Unknown, Unknown (Unknown)
The most important thing is to live a happy life without harming others.
“The greatest good for the greatest number is the measure of right and wrong.”
— Joseph Priestley, An Essay on the First Principles of Government (1768)
The morality of an action is determined by how much good it does for the majority of people.
“The best way to do good is to do it in secret.”
— Confucius, Analects (551-479 BCE)
Acts of kindness and generosity are most meaningful when done without seeking recognition or praise.
“Do not harm others.”
— Hippocrates, The Oath of Hippocrates (460-377 BCE)
A fundamental ethical principle in medicine is to refrain from causing harm to patients.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
A life without self-reflection and critical inquiry lacks meaning and purpose.
“Virtue is the only true nobility.”
— Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusculan Disputations (45 BCE)
Nobility and social status are meaningless without moral character and virtue.
“The only true measure of a man is not his wealth or power, but the values he lives by.”
— Martin Luther King Jr., Strength to Love (1963)
A person’s worth is determined by their principles and actions, not by material possessions or authority.
“The highest form of human excellence is to question oneself.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
Self-examination and questioning are essential for personal growth and moral development.
“The wicked man never knows peace.”
— Ovid, Metamorphoses (8 CE)
Those who engage in evil deeds can never truly find inner peace or contentment.
“The greatness of a man is not in how much wealth he acquires, but in his integrity and his ability to affect those around him positively.”
— Bob Marley, Unknown (1980)
True greatness lies in moral character and the positive impact one has on others, not in material possessions.
“Character is higher than intellect. A great soul will be strong to live as well as think.”
— Ralph Waldo Emerson, The Conduct of Life (1860)
Moral character and the ability to act on one’s principles are more important than intellectual knowledge.
“He is a wise man who does not grieve for the things which he has not, but rejoices for those which he has.”
— Epictetus, Enchiridion (100 CE)
True wisdom lies in contentment and appreciation for what one has, rather than dwelling on what one lacks.
19.4 Utilitarianism
📖 A consequentialist theory that holds that the right action is the one that produces the greatest balance of good over evil.
“The greatest good for the greatest number is the foundation of morals.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
The right action is the one that produces the most good for the most people.
“By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in consideration.”
— John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the people affected by it.
“The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.”
— John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the people affected by it.
“The end of human action is happiness.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness.
“Happiness is the only good.”
— Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus (300 BCE)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness.
“The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the most people.
“By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
Pleasure is good, and pain is bad.
“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
People are motivated by pleasure and pain.
“The greatest happiness for the greatest number is the measure of right and wrong.”
— John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the most people.
“The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.”
— John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the people affected by it.
“The end of human action is happiness.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness.
“Happiness is the only good.”
— Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus (300 BCE)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness.
“The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the most people.
“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
People are motivated by pleasure and pain.
“The greatest happiness for the greatest number is the measure of right and wrong.”
— John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the most people.
“The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.”
— John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the people affected by it.
“The end of human action is happiness.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness.
“Happiness is the only good.”
— Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus (300 BCE)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness.
“The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation.”
— Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
The right action is the one that produces the most happiness for the most people.
19.5 Kantian Ethics
📖 A deontological theory that emphasizes the importance of acting according to universal moral principles, regardless of one’s own desires or interests.
“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.”
— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
Our actions should be guided by moral principles that we would want everyone to follow.
“The good will is the only thing that is good without qualification.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Moral worth resides solely in the intention behind our actions, not in their consequences.
“Duty is the necessity of acting out of respect for the moral law.”
— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
Moral obligations arise from our rational nature and are binding on all rational beings.
“The categorical imperative is an imperative that holds for all rational beings, without any exception.”
— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
Moral laws are universal and apply to all rational beings, regardless of their circumstances.
“Freedom is the independence of the will from being determined by anything other than the moral law.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (1787)
True freedom lies in acting according to moral principles, not in following our desires or inclinations.
“The starry sky above me and the moral law within me.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
The grandeur of the universe and the moral law in our hearts inspire us with a sense of awe and reverence.
“Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except a good will.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Moral goodness is the only thing that has intrinsic value.
“Reason alone is the lawgiver of the will.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Our moral duties are derived from our rational nature.
“Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.”
— Martin Luther King Jr., Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963)
Violations of justice, no matter how remote, ultimately threaten the foundations of justice everywhere.
“The ends never justify the means.”
— Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle (BCE 350)
The rightness or wrongness of an action cannot be determined solely by its consequences.
“Virtue is the golden mean between two extremes.”
— Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle (BCE 350)
Moral excellence lies in finding the balance between opposing extremes.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Apology, Plato (BCE 399)
A life without self-reflection and critical inquiry is not truly meaningful.
“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
— Apology, Socrates (BCE 399)
True wisdom lies in recognizing the limits of one’s knowledge and the need for continual learning.
“The greatest wealth is to live content with little.”
— Phaedo, Plato (BCE 360)
True wealth lies not in material possessions, but in contentment and simplicity.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Apology, Socrates (BCE 399)
A life without critical self-reflection and examination is not truly worth living.
“The greatest wealth is to live content with little.”
— Phaedo, Plato (BCE 360)
The greatest wealth lies not in material possessions, but in contentment and simplicity.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Apology, Socrates (BCE 399)
A life without critical self-reflection and examination is not truly worth living.
“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
— Apology, Socrates (BCE 399)
True wisdom lies in recognizing the limits of one’s knowledge and the need for continual learning.
“The greatest wealth is to live content with little.”
— Phaedo, Plato (BCE 360)
The greatest wealth lies not in material possessions, but in contentment and simplicity.
19.7 Feminist Ethics
📖 A branch of ethics that focuses on issues related to gender and social justice, and that seeks to develop ethical theories and practices that are more inclusive and equitable for women and other marginalized groups.
“Men are not the only thinkers, only the only ones who are listened to.”
— Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (1980)
Women’s contributions to philosophy and ethics have often been overlooked or marginalized.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
We should all strive to understand ourselves and our values in order to live meaningful and ethical lives.
“The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing.”
— Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
We all have a responsibility to speak out against injustice and oppression, even when it is difficult or dangerous.
“The price of freedom is eternal vigilance.”
— Thomas Jefferson, Letter to James Madison (1787)
We must always be vigilant in defending our rights and freedoms, because they can easily be taken away.
“The most important thing is to live a good life.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
The goal of life is not to achieve wealth or power, but to live a life that is virtuous and fulfilling.
“Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
— Jesus Christ, The Bible, Matthew 7:12 (30 CE)
We should treat others the way we want to be treated.
“All human beings are created equal.”
— Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence (1776)
All people are born with the same basic rights and freedoms.
“I think, therefore I am.”
— René Descartes, Discourse on the Method (1637)
The only thing we can be certain of is that we exist.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
— Socrates, Apology (399 BCE)
We should all strive to understand ourselves and our values in order to live meaningful and ethical lives.
“The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing.”
— Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
We all have a responsibility to speak out against injustice and oppression, even when it is difficult or dangerous.
“The price of freedom is eternal vigilance.”
— Thomas Jefferson, Letter to James Madison (1787)
We must always be vigilant in defending our rights and freedoms, because they can easily be taken away.
“The most important thing is to live a good life.”
— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (350 BCE)
The goal of life is not to achieve wealth or power, but to live a life that is virtuous and fulfilling.
“Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
— Jesus Christ, The Bible, Matthew 7:12 (30 CE)
We should treat others the way we want to be treated.
“All human beings are created equal.”
— Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence (1776)
All people are born with the same basic rights and freedoms.
“I think, therefore I am.”
— René Descartes, Discourse on the Method (1637)
The only thing we can be certain of is that we exist.
19.6 Social Contract Theory
The legitimacy of a ruler comes from the consent of the governed.
The goal of society should be to maximize happiness for the majority of its members.
The purpose of laws is to protect and expand individual liberty, not to restrict it.
Society is based on an implicit agreement among its members to cooperate with each other.
People are born with natural rights, but society often restricts these rights.
Government is necessary to maintain order, but it can also be oppressive.
A free society can only exist if its citizens are virtuous.
The right action is the one that produces the most good for the most people.
The purpose of government is to promote the welfare of its citizens.
A just society treats all of its members fairly and equally.
Democracy may not be perfect, but it is the best political system that we have.
Good people must take action to prevent evil from prevailing.
It is more important to learn from our mistakes and keep trying than to never fail.
The wisest people are those who know that they do not know everything.
People should constantly examine and reflect on their lives in order to live well.
People’s actions define their character.
The ultimate goal of human life is to achieve the highest good.
The best way to live is to find a balance between extremes.
Humans are unique among animals because they have the ability to reason.
People are happiest when they are content with what they have.