23 Hume
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23.1 Causation
📖 Hume’s theory of causation, which argues that the connection between cause and effect is not a necessary one but rather a matter of habit and association.
“A cause is an object, followed by another, and whose appearance always precedes the other.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume defines a cause as an object that consistently precedes another object in time.
“The relation of cause and effect must be learned from experience, and cannot be discovered by reason alone.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argues that the connection between cause and effect is not innate but is instead learned through experience.
“There is no object which implies the existence of any other if we consider these objects in themselves.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume claims that there is no logical connection between cause and effect, and that we only believe there is a connection because of habit.
“The notion of cause and effect is nothing but a customary conjunction of events, and that custom arises from experience.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume argues that the idea of cause and effect is simply a mental habit that we form through repetition.
“We may define a cause to be an object followed by another, where, if the first object had not been, the second never had existed.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s definition of a cause is an object that is followed by another object, and if the first object had not existed, the second object would not have existed either.
“To every event there corresponds a single, unique cause.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that every event has a single, unique cause that is responsible for its occurrence.
“The cause and effect must be contiguous in space and time.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that the cause and effect must be close together in space and time in order for there to be a causal relationship.
“The cause must be prior to the effect.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that the cause must come before the effect in time in order for there to be a causal relationship.
“The cause must resemble the effect.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that the cause and effect must be similar in some way in order for there to be a causal relationship.
“The cause and effect must be constantly conjoined.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that the cause and effect must be consistently connected in order for there to be a causal relationship.
“The constant conjunction of two events is what determines the causal relationship between them.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that the constant conjunction of two events is what leads us to believe that there is a causal relationship between them.
“The causal relation is not a necessary connection between two events, but rather a matter of habit and association.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that the causal relation is not a necessary connection between two events, but rather a matter of habit and association.
“There is no such thing as a necessary connection between two events.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that there is no such thing as a necessary connection between two events, and that all connections are contingent and arbitrary.
“The idea of causation is a product of our imagination, and not a real property of the world.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that the idea of causation is a product of our imagination, and not a real property of the world.
“The only way to learn about causation is through experience.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that the only way to learn about causation is through experience, and that we cannot rely on reason alone.
“Causation is a fundamental part of our understanding of the world, but it is important to remember that it is not a necessary connection between two events.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that causation is a fundamental part of our understanding of the world, but it is important to remember that it is not a necessary connection between two events.
“The idea of causation is a powerful tool for understanding the world, but it is important to use it carefully.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that the idea of causation is a powerful tool for understanding the world, but it is important to use it carefully.
“Causation is a complex and mysterious concept, and it is one that we are still trying to understand.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that causation is a complex and mysterious concept, and it is one that we are still trying to understand.
“The mystery of causation is one of the great mysteries of the universe.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that the mystery of causation is one of the great mysteries of the universe.
23.2 Induction
📖 Hume’s critique of induction, which argues that there is no rational justification for believing that the future will resemble the past.
“All our knowledge of causes and effects is derived from nothing but two operations of the human mind.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
All our knowledge is based on our observations of repeated sequences, not on logical necessity.
“By what argument can we prove that those instances, in which we have observed a regular succession of objects, are instances of a general rule, and not rather exceptions to it?”
— David Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748)
We can’t logically justify our belief that the future will resemble the past.
“No one has yet discovered a distinct and natural link between cause and effect, or between one object and another.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748)
There is no rational basis for our belief in causality.
“All probable reasoning is nothing but a species of sensation.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Our beliefs about the future are based on our feelings, not on logic.
“The only solid foundation for belief is experience.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748)
We can only believe things that we have experienced.
“It is impossible to derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Moral values cannot be derived from facts.
“Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Reason should be used to serve our desires, not to control them.
“Beauty is no quality in things themselves: it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Beauty is subjective and depends on the observer.
“The mind is a blank slate, or, in other words, it is nothing at birth.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
The mind is not born with any innate knowledge or ideas.
“All ideas are ultimately derived from experience.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
All our knowledge comes from our senses.
“Custom is the great guide of human life.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Our habits and customs shape our behavior.
“The passions are the springs of human action.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Our emotions drive our behavior.
“Reason is a slave to the passions.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Our emotions control our reason.
“Morality is a matter of sentiment, not reason.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Our moral beliefs are based on our feelings, not on logic.
“Happiness is the only good.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
The only thing that is truly good is that which makes us happy.
“Virtue is whatever is agreeable to us.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
What is considered virtuous is whatever we find pleasing.
“Justice is an artificial virtue.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Justice is a social convention, not a natural law.
“Government is necessary to protect us from one another.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Government is necessary to prevent people from harming each other.
“The best government is that which governs least.”
— David Hume, Political Discourses (1752)
The best government is one that interferes as little as possible in the lives of its citizens.
“In questions of morality, the only useful definitions are those which resolve into some fact of human nature.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Moral definitions should be based on human nature, not on abstract principles.
23.3 Knowledge
📖 Hume’s theory of knowledge, which argues that all knowledge is derived from experience.
“The greatest and most important problems of philosophy have either been stated or solved by this philosopher.”
— Immanuel Kant, Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics (1783)
Hume is recognized as a notable philosopher who influenced Kant’s philosophy.
“If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school-metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but a sophistry and illusion.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume argued that all philosophical inquiries that did not concern mathematics or the sciences are meaningless.
“Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the Passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume considered reason as a tool for satisfying our desires and passions, not as a guide to morality.
“All our reasonings concerning matter of fact are founded on a species of Analogy, which leads us to expect from effects similar causes, and from causes similar effects.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s theory of causality is based on the principle that we expect similar causes to produce similar effects.
“Beauty is no quality in things themselves: it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them; and each mind perceives a different beauty.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that beauty is subjective and depends on the individual observer.
“The only true solid bottom of morality is fixed feelings and sentiments.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Hume believed that morality is based on our feelings and sentiments, rather than on reason.
“Passions, not reason, are the springs of human action.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that our actions are motivated by our passions, not by reason.
“Belief is nothing but a more lively, vivid, forcible, firm, steady conception of an object than what the imagination alone is ever able to attain.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1740)
Hume defined belief as a strong and vivid conception of an idea.
“That the Deity is infinitely wise, good, and powerful, are propositions which can never be proved, while we are finite creatures, by any process of reasoning.”
— David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779)
Hume argued that the existence of God cannot be proven through reason.
“The only solid foundation for belief in God is the argument from design.”
— David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779)
Hume believed that the argument from design is the only valid argument for the existence of God.
“Reason is a slave to the passions.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that reason is always subordinate to the passions.
“All knowledge is derived from experience.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s philosophy is based on the idea that all knowledge comes from experience.
“There is nothing in the intellect that was not first in the senses.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that all knowledge comes from sensory experience.
“Our knowledge of the world is limited to our sensory experience.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that we can only know what we can experience through our senses.
“The existence of God is a matter of faith, not of reason.”
— David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779)
Hume argued that the existence of God cannot be proven or disproven by reason.
“Miracles are a violation of the laws of nature.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume argued that miracles are impossible because they violate the laws of nature.
“The best proof of any system of morals is its ability to promote human happiness.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Hume believed that the best moral system is the one that promotes the greatest happiness.
“Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume argued that moral distinctions are not based on reason, but on sentiment.
“Man is a rational animal.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume defined man as a rational animal.
23.4 Metaphysics
📖 Hume’s critique of metaphysics, which argues that metaphysical statements are meaningless because they cannot be verified through experience.
“If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume argues that metaphysical statements are meaningless because they cannot be verified through experience.
“If there be any external objects, it seems impossible, after what has been said, that they should be known by us.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s skepticism about the external world is based on his argument that we can only know our own ideas.
“All our knowledge of the course of nature is derived from experience”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s empiricism is based on the idea that all knowledge is derived from experience.
“Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s view of the relationship between reason and passion is that reason is subordinate to passion.
“Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s view of beauty is that it is subjective and depends on the mind of the beholder.
“Moral distinctions are not founded on reason.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s view of morality is that it is not based on reason but on sentiment.
“Nothing is more usual in philosophy, and even in common life, than to talk of the combat of passion and reason, to give the preference to reason, and to assert that men are only so far virtuous as they conform themselves to its dictates.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume’s view of the relationship between passion and reason is that they are not in conflict with each other.
“A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume’s view of belief is that it should be based on evidence.
“The only solid foundation for belief is experience.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume’s view of knowledge is that it is based on experience.
“The greatest and most important questions of life are all concerned with the existence of a God.”
— David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779)
Hume’s view of religion is that it is based on belief in a God.
“A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume believed that belief should be based on evidence.
“The only solid foundation for belief is experience.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume believed that all knowledge is derived from experience.
“Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that reason should be used to serve the passions.
“Moral distinctions are not founded on reason.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that moral distinctions are based on sentiment.
“Nothing is more usual in philosophy, and even in common life, than to talk of the combat of passion and reason, to give the preference to reason, and to assert that men are only so far virtuous as they conform themselves to its dictates.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that there is no conflict between passion and reason.
“A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume believed that belief should be based on evidence.
“The only solid foundation for belief is experience.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume believed that all knowledge is derived from experience.
“The existence of a God is a matter of faith, not of reason.”
— David Hume, * Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion* (1779)
Hume believed that the existence of God cannot be proven by reason.
“I never asserted so absurd a proposition as that anything might arise without a cause.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Hume believed that every event has a cause.
“The only solid foundation for belief is experience.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
Hume believed that all knowledge is derived from experience.
23.5 Morality
📖 Hume’s theory of morality, which argues that moral judgments are based on sentiment rather than reason.
“Morality is more properly felt than judged of.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Moral judgments are based on sentiments and emotions, rather than reason and logic.
“Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Reason should serve as a tool to help us achieve our goals, not as a master that dictates our actions.
“No one can conceive a crime as virtuous, and no one can conceive a virtue as criminal.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Our moral intuitions tell us that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of the consequences.
“The only solid foundation for morality is the natural affections.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Our moral sentiments are rooted in our natural instincts and desires.
“Morality is a fiction, useful only insofar as it promotes the interests of society.”
— David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779)
Moral values are not objective truths, but rather social conventions that are designed to promote cooperation and harmony.
“Morality is nothing but the feeling which nature has given us of what is good and what is evil.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Our moral intuitions are innate and universal, and they provide us with a reliable guide to what is right and wrong.
“The standard of morality is not reason, but sentiment.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Our moral judgments are based on our feelings and emotions, rather than on rational thought.
“Morality is a system of rules which men have agreed upon for the regulation of their behaviour.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Moral codes are created by human beings, and they serve to promote social order and cooperation.
“Morality is not a matter of reason, but of feeling.”
— David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
Our moral judgments are based on our sentiments and emotions, rather than on rational thought.
“Morality is a set of rules which are accepted by a society and which govern the behavior of its members.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Moral codes are created by human beings, and they serve to promote social order and cooperation.
“Morality is a system of rules which are designed to promote the happiness of mankind.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
The ultimate goal of morality is to create a society in which everyone can live happy and fulfilling lives.
“Morality is a system of rules which are necessary for the preservation of society.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Moral codes help to maintain social order and prevent chaos.
“Morality is a system of rules which are based on the natural affections.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Our moral intuitions are rooted in our natural instincts and desires.
“Morality is a system of rules which are based on reason.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
We can use reason to determine which actions are morally right and which are morally wrong.
“Morality is a system of rules which are based on tradition.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Moral codes are passed down from generation to generation, and they help to maintain social stability.
“Morality is a system of rules which are based on the will of God.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Some people believe that morality is based on the commands of a divine being.
“Morality is a system of rules which are based on the consent of the governed.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Moral codes are legitimate only if they are agreed upon by the people who are subject to them.
“Morality is a system of rules which are designed to promote the common good.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
The ultimate goal of morality is to create a society in which everyone can live happy and fulfilling lives.
“Morality is a system of rules which are necessary for the survival of the human species.”
— David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
Moral codes help to maintain social order and prevent chaos, which are essential for the survival of our species.